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OSes usually cache fonts to use; several things could be happening:
The cache hasn't been updated. Usually it's regenerated on startup
The cache is corrupted - windows especially seems to like to do this to itself from what I've seen. Restart (not from hibernation), maybe play around with cleartype settings
It could also be a gpu issue. If things are too hot you won't necessarily lose everything rendered to the screen; might also look into disabling hardware acceleration. Make sure your drivers are stable
And - Chome's family of browsers likes to do most of it's own styling and rendering, which means it ignores default fonts, colors, etc. A font installed to the system might not be visible to chrome; see if you get the same error in firefox or one of its relatives